Sildenafil Essays

Sildenafil Essays Sildenafil Essay Sildenafil Essay Introduction: Sildenafil, a drug which is used for intervention of erectile disfunction ( powerlessness ) in work forces, was discovered back in 1986. It s find can be called as an illustration of serendipity. A cardiovascular research programme was carried by the Pfizer to obtain a fresh drug for the pneumonic high blood pressure or angina. This hunt had resulted in find of Viagra, the first unwritten intervention for the erectile disfunction. It is a phosphodiestrase ( PDE ) inhibitor type 5, which increases blood flow to spongy tissues of phallus and maintains hard-on which is necessary for sexual intercourse. This find had brought solution to impotence which was suffered by 1000000s of work forces. It was patented in 1996 and was approved by the USFDA at March 27, 1998. Sildenafil was released in the market by the trade name name VIAGRA for erectile disfunction and besides available every bit REVATIO as intervention of pneumonic high blood pressure ( Hossein A.Ghofrani et Al. 2006 ) . Sildenaf il is the first unwritten intervention which is available in the market as unwritten intervention for erectile disfunction in work forces ( Jim Kling 1998 ) . Background: Sildenafil is used to handle erectile disfunction. Erectile disfunction is a disease in which hard-on of phallus is non attained or maintained which is required for sexual intercourse. Erectile disfunction can be caused by diseases such as diabetes, high blood pressure or psychological upsets such as emphasis, anxiousness etc. It is a common disease between work forces aged between 40 and 70 old ages. Before the find of Sildenafil, interventions such as vacuity therapy by penial pump or penial prosthetic device surgery are used to handle erectile disfunction. Vacuum pumps were available on physician s prescription but penial prosthetic device surgery was done as a last resort. It involves interpolation of unreal rods in phallus which was non much favourable ( Anon 2008a ; Chris Steidle 2009 ) Discovery: Sildenafil was discovered by a group of pharmaceutical scientists of Pfizer Company situated at sandwich, Kent. In 1984, a cardiovascular research programme was carried out by these scientists to happen a new drug which has important consequence in instance of angina or high blood pressure. Nitrates are the diffusible gases which starts transition of guanosine triphosphate ( GTP ) to cyclic guanosine monophosphate ( cGMP ) which is responsible for a cascade or reactions doing vascular musculus relaxation. Therefore, nitrate show anti-anginal consequence which is required but it s action is limited by drawn-out exposure to nitrates ( Parker and Parker 1998 ) . PDE enzymes move on cGMP and do it s debasement by change overing it once more to guanosine mono- or triphosphate. So, a biological hypothesis was put frontward by the scientists that to barricade the PDE enzyme and potentiate the action of azotic oxide ( NO ) . At that clip, 5 types of PDE enzymes were identified from which PDE 5 type of enzyme was moving merely on cGMP and non on any other cyclic nucleotide. This PDE5 enzyme is present in squashy tissues of phallus known as principal cavernosum. There were no compounds available at that clip demoing powerful PDE5 inhibitory activity. A hunt of certification of assorted compounds demoing vasodilative effects lead to a compound, Zaprinast which shows weak and non-selective inhibitor of PDE5 enzyme. It showed it s vasodilatory activity in anaesthetized Canis familiaris. Subsequently on, it was developed as an anti-allergy agent. But, zaprinast act as a lead compound for Sildenafil and farther alterations were carried out on construction of zaprinast to suppress PDE5 enzyme ( Simon F.Campbell 2000 ) . Zaprinast ( 1 ) and guanine ring parallels portions a structural similarity in their basic construction. The triazolopyrimidinone construction of zaprinast and the guanine ring of GTP have similar dipole minute in magnitude and way ( 9.5 and 7.4 severally ) . From the construction of zaprinast and cGMP, it was suggested that this heterocyclic rings are recognized by the active site of PDE enzyme. So, alterations were transporting out on triazolopyrimidinone ring to obtain a powerful drug with high enyme affinity. Furthermore, computational surveies showed that cGMP attains a syn conformation and zaprinast allows isosteric replacings which favours adhering with phosphate mediety. Last, it was supported by X-ray construction that heterocyclic ring is indispensable for the inhibitory activity so it was remained unchanged ( J.A.Beavo 1995 ) . After transporting out alterations on the parent ring, a pyrazolopyrimidinone construction ( UK-122764, 2 ) was found to hold 10 fold addition in authority against PDE5 and decreased affinity towards other PDE enzymes. But, still alterations were required to be done as to replace cyclic phosphate ring of original substrate in the spacial part. Therefore 3- methyl permutation was carried out on the parent ring and a tetrahedreal group of sulphonamide was attached to the ring to replace the cyclic phosphate ring ( Hossein A.Ghofrani, Ian H.Osterloh, A ; Friedrich Grimminger 2006 ) . A important discovery came in 1989, when a compound was synthesized named UK-92480 ( Sildenafil, 3 ) which was holding 100 fold addition in PDE5 enzyme selectivity and really less selectivity against the remainder of the enzymes of PDE household. The piperazinosulphonamide mediety imparts lipophilicity to the construction of Sildenafil and and makes it more soluble. Besides, it potentiates the action of azotic oxide efficaciously and increase cGMP degrees intracellularly with lesser side effects. It resembles the construction of cGMP which shows competitory suppression of PDE5 enzyme and it was confirmed as it gave a dosage related addition of 2-4 crease of cGMP in eyetooth coronary arterias ( Robert B.Moreland et al. 1998 ) . Sildenafil cGMP Clinical Development: In 1991, Healthy voluntaries were given a individual dosage of 200mg of Sildenafil as a portion of phase-1 clinical tests. These doses were good tolerated among the voluntaries but when dose exceed from 150mg, it shows perturbations in colour vision. When Sildenafil was given intravenously with glycerin trinitrate, it increases the vasodilatory consequence of nitrates among the topics. So, Sildenafil should be contraindicated or a safe manner demands to be developed to administrate both drugs at the same time. In 1992, surveies were carried out on healthy voluntaries who were given 75mg of Sildenafil three times a twenty-four hours for 10 yearss. Healthy voluntaries reported flushing, concerns, dyspepsia and some of them besides reported penial hard-ons as side effects. But this was non taken earnestly at that clip and farther tests were carried out as a cardiovascular survey boulder clay 1993 ( Hossein A.Ghofrani, Ian H.Osterloh, A ; Friedrich Grimminger 2006 ) . But, consequences show that Sildenafil was non a promising drug for the intervention of high blood pressure. So in late 1993, new clinical tests were carried out in healthy persons enduring from erectile disfunction were carried out. A Rigiscan device holding two cringles was fitted, one cringle at the base and another at the tip of phallus to find the girth and hardness during the sexual intercourse. After transporting out two different clinical surveies for about one twelvemonth, consequences showed that individual dosage of Sildenafil showed hard-on with a additive dose-response relationship ( M Bollel et Al. 1996 ) . Further, clinical tests were carried out in more than 3000 patients enduring from erectile disfunction of assorted type, with a average continuance of five old ages and they were given 25mg, 50mg or 100mg of Sildenafil as dose. These patients were aged between 18-87 old ages and 21 tests were carried out in randomised, placebo controlled, dual blind for 6 months with different survey designs such as analogues, cross over, fixed dosage and titration ( Pfizer Labs 2007 ) . Effectiveness of Sildenafil was assessed with instruments such as Rigiscan but chiefly it was assessed on the footing of International Index of Erectile Function ( IIEF ) which consist of 15 inquiries chiefly which serves two chief terminal points ( Rosen R.C. et Al. 1997 ) . They are: O Ability to accomplish hard-on required for sexual inter class O Maintainance of hard-on after incursion The replies were recorded as categorical responses after 4 hebdomads period of clip. They are: O ( 0 ) No attempted intercourse O ( 1 ) Never or about neer O ( 2 ) A few times O ( 3 ) Some times O ( 4 ) Most times O ( 5 ) Almost or ever Besides, a journal was kept by the patients and their sexual information was recorded by themselves daily and an optional questionnaire was besides administered for their spouses. Consequences of patients demoing betterment of hard-ons assessed by questionnaire in any of the four different survey designs for 12 to 24 hebdomads of clip is shown below which was obtained on the 1797 patients that were characterized by average tonss of 2 ( few times ) on IIEF inquiry ( Pfizer Labs 2007 ) . Treatment group Besides, clinical surveies were carried out in patients enduring from erectile disfunction caused by conditions such as diabetes or spinal cord hurt. In all instances, Viagra showed it s consequence and improved hard-on. On all tests, sildenafil improved conditions of erectile disfunction in 43 % of patients against 15 % of placebo ( Pfizer Labs 2007 ) . Target designation and Validation: During the clinical development of Viagra, 6 more households of PDE inhibitors were identified. So, there are entire 11 types of PDE enzymes from which Viagra showed high selectivity towards PDE5 than any other else except PDE6. It showed merely 10 fold selectivity towards PDE6. Visual defects associated with Viagras were explained by weak suppression of PDE6 enzyme which was situated in exposure receptors. It shows high selectivity towards PDE5 against PDE7-11 enzymes ( Hossein A.Ghofrani, Ian H.Osterloh, A ; Friedrich Grimminger 2006 ) . working model.bmpSildenafil portions a similar construction with cGMP. The 3 substituent of heterocyclic ring make full the infinite in the enzyme filled by ribose and the 5 terminal of sildenafil mimic the function of cyclic phosphate in substrate binding. Sildenafil blocks the PDE5 catalytic site which is acquired by cGMP. So cGMP binds to the allosteric site of the enzyme and cause enzyme suppression. This will ensue in addition degrees of cGMP as it is non catalyzed by the enzyme and will do vasodilation which will ensue in increased blood flow to the tissue. 5 illustrates the mechanism of action of Viagra. As Viagra has similar construction with cGMP and has high affinity towards PDE5 enzyme, inquiry arises that sildenafil interacts with the cGMP for adhering at allosteric site. A site directed mutagenesis survey was carried out to measure the amino acids involved in contact action of substrate. The chief aim is to understand the suppression of the enzyme at the molecular degr ee and measuring the repressive effects of drugs on the catalytic site. Analysis of binding of Viagra to allosteric site was carried out and consequences showed that there is no interaction between Viagra and cGMP for adhering at allosteric site ( Illarion V.Turko, Stephen A.Ballard, Sharron H.Francis, A ; Jackie D.Corbin 1999 ) . The first PDE5 enzyme was identified in research lab. It was recognized when a hunt was carried out for cyclic nucleotide-binding proteins other than cyclic nucleotide dependent protein kinases as a cGMP adhering protein in lung tissue. 6 shows working theoretical account of PDE5 enzyme in which there is phosphorylation site at the aminic terminal parts. There are two allosteric adhering sites for cGMP near it. At catalytic sites consists of two Zn ­+2 adhering motifs A and B near the carboxy terminal part. The phosphorylation site is at serine residue at 92 place. The binding motives are aspartic acid at places 714 and 754. They facilitate the contact action by moving as a catalytic base or as a co-ordinated ligand for required metal ( Jackie D.Corbin and Sharron H.Francis 1999 ) . Lead Regeneration: Reaction strategy for Viagra was foremost reported in 1996 in Bioorganic A ; Medicinal chemical science Letters. Below is the reaction strategy ( 7 ) which was explained in the diary. It is a additive reaction which involves reaction of diketo ester ( 1 ) to hydrazine. It will ensue in cyclization of the merchandise giving pyrazole ring ( 2 ) . This pealing upon hydrolysis with a base, gives a carboxylic acid derived function on which regioselcetive N-methylation has occurred ( 3 ) . This compound on nitration with azotic acid in presence of sulfuric acid, and on decrease with Se chloride and ammonium hydrated oxide, nitro group gets reduced to amino groups ( 4 ) . Now this compound, upon acylation under basic conditions, undergoes pealing closing and forms a pyrazolopyrimidinone derived function ( 6 ) .This upon chlorosulphonylation at 5 place of phenyl ring, consequence in Viagra ( David J.Dale et Al. 1999 ; Nicholas K.Terrett et Al. 1996 ) . Different paths are available for synthesis of Viagra but there are minor alterations in the stairss. Sildenafil is commercially produced by another path which was published subsequently on.

Looking for Black Holes in Out-Of-The-Way Galaxies

Looking for Black Holes in Out-Of-The-Way Galaxies Black holes are strange beasts in the cosmic zoo. They come in two types: stellar and supermassive. Its now well known that most galaxies have many stellar-mass black holes scattered throughout. Theyre usually created by the deaths of stars in supernova explosions. Theyre sometimes found in binary systems, where a black hole and a white dwarf or some other type of star are doing an orbital dance with each other. An artists conception of a stellar-mass black hole (in blue) hat likely formed when a supermassive star collapsed, feeding from material ejected by a nearby star. ESA, NASA and Felix Mirabel) Meet the Behemoths The largest black holes, the supermassives, are tucked away in the hearts of galaxies and contain the mass of millions or billions of stars. They spend at least some of their time chowing down on material in their immediate neighborhoods. Most of the supermassive black holes astronomers know about are tucked away  in galaxies that themselves are bundled together in clusters. The largest one found so far has the mass of 21 billion suns and holds court in the core of a galaxy in the Coma Cluster. Coma is a huge conglomeration that lies 336 million light-years away from the Milky Way galaxy. The heart of the Coma Cluster of galaxies; one of the galaxies contains the most massive black hole ever found. This HST image reveals galaxies and globular clusters associated with the core of the cluster. NASA/ESA/STScI That wasnt the only big one out there. Astronomers also found a 17-billion-solar-mass black hole hunkered down in the core of a galaxy called NGC 1600, which itself is in a cosmic backwater where only about 20 galaxies exist. Since most of the really big black holes live in the big cities (that is, in well-populated galaxy clusters) finding this one out in the galactic sticks tells astronomers that something strange had to have happened to create it in its current galaxy. Merging Galaxies and Black Hole Build-ups So, how does a monster black hole get stashed away in a small-town galaxy cluster? One possible explanation is that it merged with another black hole at some point in the distant past. Early in the history of the universe, galaxy interactions were much more common, building ever-larger ones from smaller ones. Galaxy collisions contribute to the formation of supermassive black holes. This Hubble Space Telescope image shows a collision called the Antennae. During the course of the collision, billions of stars will be formed and any central black holes in each of the colliding galaxies can merge to form ever-larger monsters. NASA/ESA.STScI When two galaxies merge, not only do their stars and gas and dust mingle, but their central black holes (if they have them, and most galaxies do) migrate to the core of the newly formed, more massive galaxy. There, they orbit each other, becoming whats called a binary black hole. Any stars or clouds of gas and dust are in double jeopardy from the gravitational pull of these black holes. However, this material can actually steal momentum from the black holes (provided it doesnt fall right into them). When that happens, the stars escape, leaving the black holes with less momentum. They start to move closer together, and eventually, they merge to create a behemoth black hole. It continues to grow by gobbling up gas funneled to the core throughout the collision. Growing a Massive Black Hole So, how did NGC 1600s black hole get so massive? The most likely explanation is that it was extremely hungry at one point in its early life, leading it to suck in lots of gas and other material. That huge appetite may explain also why the host galaxy is in such a small cluster, compared to other supermassive black holes in galaxies in the hearts of much larger clusters. NGC 1600 is the largest, most massive galaxy in its group. Its also three times brighter than any of the other nearby galaxies. That huge difference in brightness is not something astronomers have seen in other groups. Most of the galaxys gas was consumed long ago when the black hole blazed as a brilliant quasar from material streaming into it that was heated into glowing plasma. In modern times, NGC 1600s central black hole is relatively quiet. In fact, astronomers called it a sleeping giant. That explains why it hadnt been detected in earlier studies of the galaxy. Astronomers stumbled across this massive monster when they were measuring the velocities of nearby stars. The intense gravitational field of the black hole affects the motions and speeds of stars. Once astronomers were able to measure those speeds, they could then determine the black holes mass. How Do Astronomers Even Find a Black Hole? Astronomers used special instruments at the Gemini Observatory in Hawaii to study the light coming from the stars near the black hole in NGC 1600. Some of those stars are circling the black hole, and that motion shows up in the starlights fingerprint (called its spectrum). Other stars had motions that seem to suggest that they had once ventured a bit too close to the black hole and were gravitationally flung away in a more-or-less straight line from the galaxy core. This makes sense since Hubble Space Telescope data also showed the core to be very faint. Youd expect that if the black hole were tossing stars away from itself. Its possible that NGC 1600s core has ejected enough stars to make 40 billion suns. That tells astronomers theres a pretty powerful and massive black hole hidden away at the heart of this galaxy, which lies some 209 million light-years from Earth. Instruments attached to Gemini Observatory can be used to study the fingerprints of light streaming away from the regions around black holes such as that in NGC 1600. Gemini Observatory Key Takeaways Black holes exist throughout many galaxies. The cores of spirals and ellipticals usually contain supermassive black holes.The elliptical galaxy NGC 1600 has a fairly massive black hole at its heart.Astronomers are working to understand why this galaxy has such a massive black hole. Sources â€Å"A View of the Giant Elliptical Galaxy NGC 1600.†Ã‚  HubbleSite - The Telescope - Hubble Essentials - About Edwin Hubble, hubblesite.org/image/3723/news.Dunbar, Brian. â€Å"What Is a Black Hole?†Ã‚  NASA, NASA, 21 May 2015, www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k-4/stories/nasa-knows/what-is-a-black-hole-k4.html.NASA, NASA, science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/black-holes.

HIV drug treatment in South Africa Literature review

HIV drug treatment in South Africa - Literature review Example It also highlights the side effects of these drugs and mention ways of making the HIV drug treatment as safe as possible. HIV is an important health concern as about a million of people are infected annually by this pandemic. Africa is disproportionately bearing the weight of HIV/AIDS epidemic. The population of Africa forms 11 percent of the world’s total population and about 67 percent of the people infected by HIV are living in Africa. About 22.4 million population of Africa is infected by HIV virus and about 1.9 million new HIV cases were reported in the year 2008. About 10 million African children lost their parent because of HIV, in the last year. The countries located in the north of Africa have the lower prevalence HIV rate. However according to statistics South Africa is the worst HIV affected part of this continent. About 10 percent of the population of Zambia, Swaziland, Namibia, Lesotho, Botswana and Zimbabwe, is affected by HIV virus. In the sub- Saharan part of Africa the HIV patients acquire half of the beds present at any hospitals. Health care professionals have been highly affected by this pandemic. In the years 1990-2005 about 17 percent of the health work force was lost because of this killer virus. In response to this major health risk a number of initiatives have been taken to educate the population of Africa, in order to reduce the potential risk of HIV. In 2013, a special report was issued by UNAINDS. According to this report the number of people receiving anti-retroviral treatment in the current year is seven times more than the patient receiving treatment five years back. Education is the main source by the help of which develop Africa fight against HIV/AIDS. There are several institutions that offer training to the individuals to eliminate the misconception about HIV this help them to make informed decision related to their health. There are several programs being offered in Africa one of which is â€Å"sensitization

Internal Controls Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Internal Controls - Assignment Example Cash is the most important asset of a company due the fact it can be used to pay for the purchases, payroll, and debt obligation of a firm (Deloitte). In the past I have been exposed to internal controls in the workplace. The section below discusses four experiences of mine with internal controls in the workplace. Example #1 A few years ago I worked for a company that had just been opened. The firm operated in a niche industry. I was selected during the first round of recruiting. The company promised its employees a $6 productivity bonus if the employees surpassed the daily production quota. A few months passed by and the bonus was never paid. The employee got angry and started to rebel against the firm. The absenteeism rate of the company increased. The human resource department implemented a new internal control to obtain real time data over the attendance of its employees. An electronic system was installed that would record the exact time the employee arrived, lunchtime breaks, a nd the employees exit. The employees were given a code of four digits that they would enter in the machine. The new internal control system backfired. The employees began to cheat by giving their secret number to another employee so that they would punch in for them. Sometimes the employees never went to work and got paid by letting somebody else enter their secret attendance code. It took the company several months to realize some of the employees were cheating. After this debacle the HR department took more serious measures to deal with the problem. They installed a new internal control measures that was safe proof. The new system made the employees punch into a machine that used their fingerprints to log in. Example #2 Three summers ago I got a chance to work with my uncle for a month. His employee was on vacation. My uncle owned a convenience store. He told me when I started working that he got robbed twice that year and he did not know what to do. He could not afford a security guard and he had gotten two quotations for security systems that costs over $1,500. He was having cash flow problems and did not have the money at the time. I decided to help my uncle. He needed an internal control system that was cheap and effective. I got him a used remote security camera system from eBay that allowed him to record all the video recording on his computer. He could view any of the cameras from his home at any time through the computer or smartphone. The system costs only $250. Example #3 In the past I used to work at a supermarket. The store had a lot of customers, thus it had 10 cashiers open at all times. Control of cash was vital to running the operation effectively. The managers used several internal controls measures to safeguard cash. One of them was that each cashier had to fill a short sales report at the end of the shift and count the cash. The cash was then taken to the manager’s office to put it in a safe. The safe was emptied three times per wee k and a carrier moved the cash from the store to the bank. Example #4 I used to work delivering pizzas. The pizzeria I worked for had some problems with employee not making deliveries and deliveries being late. The manager of the company decided to implement an internal control measure to resolve the problem. When a pizza was delivered the employee had to give the customer a ticked stub that had to sign by customer with the time that the pizza was delivere

Impact of Terrorist Attacks on Tourism and How to Prevent Acts of Terro

Introduction Acts of terrorism has greatly affected multiple countries, including the United States. The horrific events that took place on 9/11 left the American people shocked, devastated, and furious. Many innocent American’s lost their lives on this infamous day. While airports and airlines are not free from security breaches, a set of new security measures and requirements have been implemented by the International Air Transport Association and the International Civil Aviation Organization (Beirman, 2011). Increased security at airports and airlines, have left terrorists to target more vulnerable areas such as tourist destinations. Attacking tourists’ spots such as hotels, restaurants, nightclubs, conference venues and other forms of transportation such as buses, trains and rail terminals are an easier target for a terrorist group (Beirman, 2011). The main purpose of this paper is to inform the reader on how 9/11 impacted the tourism industry in recent following years after the attack, as well as to provide terrorism prevention strategies for tourism destinations. The attacks on 9/11 have significantly impacted the tourism industry in ways such as international, domestic and business arrivals, the economy and tourism business sectors, and citizen’s perceptions of traveling, thus resulting in researches coming up with strategies on how to prevent terrorism from happening at a tourism destination. Links and Trends Between Terrorism and Tourism Tourists may be victims of terrorism simply because they were at the wrong place at the wrong time. However, in recent history there is more likely to be a link between tourism and terrorism. As seen throughout the news, there are multiple instances where terrorists are seen targeting tourists specifically, such as the Bali Bombings that took place in Bali. Reason being is that attacking tourists has a distinctive advantage for the terrorist group. First of all, many foreign tourists who are attacked are from so-called developed countries such as the United States, France, Italy, and other various countries. Attacking theses foreign tourists guarantees publicity for the terrorist group in that tourist’s home country (Horner & Swarbrooke, 2004). Having these countries give terrorist groups publicity makes terrorists feel they have accomplished their task and are becoming more power... ...1, September 9). The tourism legacy of 9/11 ten years on. Retrieved from http://www.eturbonews.com/25139/tourism-legacy-911-ten-years Bonham, Carl & Edmonds, Christopher & Mak, James (2006, February 22) The Impact of 9/11 and Other Terrible Global Events on Tourism in the U.S. and Hawaii [Case Study]. Retrieved from http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/handle/10125/3683/econwp087.pdf?sequence=1 Herman, E. (2002, June 10). Hotels rebound from 9/11 revenue loss hampers full recovery. Retrieved from http://articles.nydailynews.com/2002-06-10/news/18188960_1_room- rates-hotel-consultant-revenue-per-available-room Horner, S., & Swarbrooke, J. (2004). International cases in tourism management. (1 ed.). London, England: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann. Paraskevas, Alexandros & Arendell, Beverley (2007, February 8). A strategic framework for terrorism prevention and mitigation in tourism destinations [Case Study]. Oxford: Elsevier Publishing. Wolley, John, & Peters, Gerhard (2001, September 11). George W. Bush: "Address to the Nation on the Terrorist Attacks," September 11, 2001. Retrieved from http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=58057

What Is Criminal Justice

A crime is committed when a person has violated the law by the state, federal government and local jurisdiction system and cannot be justified. Crime can be categorized in several types of ways; felonies, misdemeanors, offenses, treason and espionage and inchoate offenses. Felonies are considered to be major crimes which could cost an offender jail time, probation and confiscated property. The two most common models of how society determines whether a crime has been committed are criminal law and criminal justice. Criminal law relates to crime and punishment.In contrast, criminal justice focus is geared towards the right and wrong doing in situations. There is no separation between social and criminal justice because justice is portrayed by our nation’s criminal court. The law is a set of guidelines that has been applied through public establishment to regulate behavior wherever possible. Criminal law has two essential parts which are substantive criminal law that identifies c rimes and punishment the offender may face and procedural law is a method use to enforce substantive law.The government structure that applies to the criminal justice system is connected by the federal, state and local level. The government has three branches to help avert and manage crime the legislature, judiciary and the executive. The legislature division determines what is right and wrong and how congress passes laws. The executive branch enforces the law and judiciary system interprets the law. Criminological theory is an explanation of the causes of crime and how it is connected within the criminal justice system.Understanding the criminal is significant to first understand how civilization thinks and determine what acts are considering a crime. A thought based on classical and neoclassical of criminology is a choice theory. Conscious choices created by choice theory are a basic belief of criminality. To understand choice theory, it is important to first address the basic ass umptions use by classical theorist.Schmalleger (2009) stated, â€Å"Crime is caused by the individual exercise of free will. Human beings are fundamentally rational, and most human behavior is the result of free will coupled with rational choice† (pp. 83-84). Early theorist of the classical school believed that pain and pleasure were the dominate traits that governed human behavior. These early rational were replaced with a more modern rational choice theory. Scott (2000) stated, â€Å"What distinguishes ational choice theory form other forms of theory is that it denies the existence of any kinds of action other than purely rational and calculative. All social action can be seen as rationally motivated, as instrumental actions, however much it may appear to be irrational or non-rational† (p. 2). The concept of personal choice is rooted in the analysis of human behavior developed by Ceasar Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham. Bentham essentially said that an individual would co mmit a crime as long as the reward outweighed the consequences.

China s Economic Development Through The Stages Of The...

China’s booming economic growth over the past forty or so years is one of the most impressive events to happen in the global economy. The economic transformation of this country is unlike any other transformation. China was by far the most economically and technologically advanced nation almost a millennium ago. However, it started to fall behind in economic growth compare to Western Europe during the time of 1500 and 1800. This paper will examine China’s economic development through the stages of the demographic transition model and its post-transition conditions. In addition, some of the implication of the ageing population has on the continuing development of the country’s economy will be addressed. There is great debate if the decline in economic growth was before or after the Industrial revolution but many seem to agree that the political system and the many conflicts that occurred in China play a major role. These factors made it difficult for the Chinese economy from getting the force it needed to catch up to the growth of Western Europe. Up until the 1950s, there was both high birth and death rates. Although the population growth was low and stable during this time, the economic growth in this country was at a minimal. The pre 1950s period would be considered stage one on the demographic transition model for China. It was not until the 1950s, when the People’s Republic of China was established, that the process of growth began. The decisions made during thisShow MoreRelatedThe Demographic Transition Of Nepal1540 Words   |  7 PagesDemographic Transition Research paper Nepal has â…“ of the population living below the poverty line, thus, making it one of the poorest and least developed countries in the world. Nepal has an area of 147,181 square kilometres and a population of approximately 27 million (The World Factbook). 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